What causes genes to mutate?

What causes genes to mutate?

•      Ionising radiation – X Rays, UV light

•      Chemicals –from cigarettes, plastic processing, pollutants,

•      Virus infection – papilloma virus, HBV, etc.

•      Hereditary predisposition – Some families are more susceptible to getting certain cancers. you can’t inherit cancer

Silent: If abase substitution occurs in the third position of the codon there is a good chance that a synonymous codon will be generated. Thus the amino acid sequence encoded by the gene is not changed and the mutation is said to be silent.

Missence: When base substitution results in the generation of a codon that specifies a different amino acid and hence leads to a different polypeptide sequence. Depending on the type of amino acid substitution the missense mutation is either conservative or non-conservative.

Nonsense: When a base substitution results in a stop codon ultimately truncating translation and most likely leading to a non-functional protein.

Aneuploidies- Is the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell, for example a human cell having 45 or 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46. It does not include a difference of one or more complete sets of chromosomes.

Mutated Cancer Genes
Oncogenes	Oncosuppressors
Genes that positively contribute to cancer, they need to be more active. They usually push proliferation, inhibit apoptosis, block differentiation, make stemness.	genes that need to be inactivated to contribute to cancer. They usually inhibit proliferation, induce apoptosis, induce differentiation

!!**REMEMBER TO STAY POSITIVE LIKE A PROTON**!!

RBC Life cycle

Red Blood Cell Life Cycle

1. RBC are produced in the BM from
precursors. This is when Hb is
produced. RBC production is
stimulated by EPO released from
the kidney cells

2. Mature RBC are released in the
circulation where they function
for 120 days

3. Old RBC are recognized and
phagocytized by macrophages in
the spleen (Hemocatheretic
function)

4. The content of the RBC is
recycled: Hb à aa

5. Heme à Protoporphirin + Fe

6. protoporphyrin is recycled or
metabolized by liver (bilirubin)
and excreted in the gut
(stercobilin) or urin (Urobilin)

7. Iron is transported by transferrin
and/or conserved in the protein
ferritin

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Acid base disorder

Acid base disorder 

Effects on cell compartmentalisation induced by changes of ionisation state of molecules.

Metabolic acids:

Anaerobic metabolism of glucose to lactate and pyruvate.

Anaerobic metabolism of fatty acids.

Oxidation of suplphur-containing amino acids (Cys and Met) and cationic amino acids (Arg and Lys).

Chemical buffers (intracellular and extracellular)

- Bicarbonate system (seconds).

- Phosphate system.

- Protein buffer system.

Physiological regulation:

- Respiratory control - the brain stem respiratory centres (1-3 minutes). Changes alveolar ventilation.

- Renal mechanisms (hours; up to a whole  day).

Its biological significance lies on the fact that can eliminate buffer hydrogen ions.

Major buffer system of blood plasma (around 70% of buffering capacity).

Not a very efficient system – pKa not within ideal range to buffer pH 7.4

Importance comes from two other features:

High concentrations in the blood.

Open system – excretion of CO2 from the lungs and reabsorption of HCO3- in the kidney.

**!!Remember to stay positive like to proton!!**

Interesting article on pains of arthritis! I am learning about *COOL*

PURPOSE OF REVIEW:

An increasing number of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are using cannabis to treat their symptoms, although systematic studies regarding efficacy in RA are lacking. Within this review we will give an overview on the overall effects of cannabinoids in inflammation and why they might be useful in the treatment of RA.

RECENT FINDINGS:

Peripherally, cannabinoids show anti-inflammatory effects by activating cannabinoid type 2 receptors (CB2) which decrease cytokine production and immune cell mobilization. In contrast, cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1) activation on immune cells is proinflammatory while CB1 antagonism provides anti-inflammatory effects by increasing β2-adrenergic signaling in the joint and secondary lymphoid organs. In addition, the nonpsychotropic cannabinoid, cannabidiol (CBD) demonstrated antiarthritic effects independent of cannabinoid receptors. In addition to controlling inflammation, cannabinoids reduce pain by activating central and peripheral CB1, peripheral CB2 receptors and CBD-sensitive noncannabinoid receptor targets.

SUMMARY:

Cannabinoids might be a suitable treatment for RA, but it is important to target the right receptors in the right place. For clinical studies, we propose a combination of a CB2 agonist to decrease cytokine production, a peripheral CB1 antagonist to prevent detrimental CB1 signaling and to support anti-inflammatory effects of CB2 via activation of β2-adrenergic receptors and CBD to induce cannabinoid-receptor-independent anti-inflammatory effects.

**REMEMBER TO STAY POSITIVE LIKE A PROTON!!**

Starting 3rd Year! Exciting!!

Hi Readers!
As Autumn creeps in the end of summer break is here! After a long restful few months I am happy to come back to university and learn more about medical sciences and trying new experiences! 
A little food for thought and what I am currently working on is what one thing would you do differently than last year? For me I am definitely going to be working on my literature reviews and try to read more science journals in order to get a better understanding and learn the scientific language. 

whats yours? 
Lastly good luck on the new academic year! I hope this year brings new friends, good grades and all round good vibes! 

**REMEMBER TO STAY POSITIVE LIKE A PROTON!!**

Can Treating Gum disease help manage type 2 diabetes?

A new study led by professor Dr. Francesco D' Auito have found out in new research that treating gum disease can have a significant improvement and manageable differences on type 2 diabetes. 

Below are a few experts from the research paper: 

"Gum disease is closely linked to diabetes and it is well known that it can lead to a higher blood glucose level as well as chronic inflammation around the body, which both could promote the development of kidney and vessel damage if sustained for long periods of time.

"This is the first long-term, randomised study to show a substantial benefit of treating gum disease on diabetes control.

"Lowering blood glucose level by 0.6% is the equivalent of prescribing a patient an additional, second blood sugar lowering drug.

what do you think of this exciting news, that I thought I would share with my readers! 

let me know in the comments below!! :)

-Mr. Paracetamol 

**!!REMEMBER TO STAY POSITIVE LIKE A PROTON!!**

CRISPR - the revolutionary advancement in medicine?

Hi guys! 

Today were going to discuss CRISPR, if you haven't heard of it before its a very simple but powerful tool which can edit genomes. This is really good because it means that scientists can easily alter and edit the genome and its  functions. CRISPR is associated with the protein called cas9 and is a type of enzyme used to catalyses the reaction and cut the DNA strand up. 

I wanted to discuss about CRISPR this week as it has been making waves in the medical community after being deemed unsafe and unethical in genetic editing on children and so called 'designer' babies. 

what are your thoughts? please let me know in the comments below or alternatively email me! I always reply! :) 

hope you all are having a amazing summer! 

From. 
Mr. Paracetamol 

**!!REMEMBER TO STAY POSITIVE LIKE A PROTON!!**