Why C.Elegans are important to study in biology?

Why C.Elegans are important to study in biology?

C. elegans is a harmless relative of the eel worm and attack root of crops. C. elegans develops like clockwork very precisely from which it fertilised egg cell to a 959 body cells which is quite rear to see in a animal nevertheless it has enabled scientist to study the detailed sequence of events as the cells becomes more specialised and divide which has allowed to make rules and predications as C. elegans has 70% human genes counterpart in the worm. It has given us a detailed molecular understanding of apoptosis in particular which is programmed cell death by which surplus of cell are disposed in all animals which is a topic of great importance in cancer research.

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Redox in biological systems

Redox in biological systems

A Redox reaction include all chemical reactions in which all atoms have their oxidation state is changed and in which there is a electron transfer between chemical species and a Reduction is the gain of electrons and a decrease in oxidation state by a molecules or atom or ion. 

A mnemonic is OIL RIG and stands for OXIDATION IS LOSS, REDUCTION IS GAIN. 

It is easier to understand Redox by studying oxidation number 

Examples of Redox reactions in biological systems could be: 

-Mitochondria- powerhouse of the cell. 

-Digestion of Food- Oxidation process where food molecules react with oxygen into carbon dioxide and water and energy is also released.

-Oxidation damage to Cells- which is common in all life forms and cycles and has consequences of aging and the gradual breakdown of the immune systems.

-Oxidiative Phosphorylation- Is the synthesis of ATP by phosphorylation of ADP for which energy is obtained by electron transport. 

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Active Transport VS Passive Transport

Active Transport VS Passive Transport

	Active Transport	Passive Transport
Definition	Active Transport uses ATP to pump molecules AGAINST/UP the concentration gradient. Transport occurs from a low concentration of solute to high concentration of solute. Requires cellular energy.	Movement of molecules DOWN the concentration gradient. It goes from high to low concentration, in order to maintain equilibrium in the cells. Does not require cellular energy.
Types of Transport	Endocytosis, cell membrane/sodium-potassium pump & exocytosis	Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.
Functions	Transports molecules through the cell membrane against the concentration gradient so more of the substance is inside the cell (i.e. a nutrient) or outside the cell (i.e. a waste) than normal. Disrupts equilibrium established by diffusion.	Maintains dynamic equilibrium of water, gases, nutrients, wastes, etc. between cells and extracellular fluid; allows for small nutrients and gases to enter/exit. No NET diffusion/osmosis after equilibrium is established.
Types of Particles Transported	proteins, ions, large cells, complex sugars.	Anything soluble (meaning able to dissolve) in lipids, small monosaccharides, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sex hormones, etc.
Examples	phagocytosis, pinocytosis, sodium/potassium pump, secretion of a substance into the bloodstream (process is opposite of phagocytosis & pinocytosis)	diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Importance	amino acids, sugars and lipids need to enter the cell by protein pumps, which require active transport.These items either cannot diffuse or diffuse too slowly for survival.	It maintains equilibrium in the cell. Wastes (carbon dioxide, water, etc.) diffuse out and are excreted; nutrients and oxygen diffuse in to be used by the cell.

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Carbohydates

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate are molecules that are made of only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. 

Monosaccharide's are the simplest sugars units such as glucose. Simple sugars usually have 3-6 carbon chains. Sucrose is classed as a non reducing sugar based on its ability to act as a reducing agent which donates electrons during a Redox reaction and is itself oxidised.  

The adehyde functional group is the reducing agent in reducing sugars and reducing agent is the reducing sugars have either an aldehye functional group or a ketone group in a open chain form which can be converted into a aldehyde group.

The method to test this is called the Benedict's test is to mix the sample with Benedict's solution this is usually Copper (II) Sulphate. If it is a Negative result it will turn blue.  In order to test for a non reducing sugar, you will need to first boil and dilute with HCL and then mix with Benedict's solution and heat, a positive result will be red.

Disaccharides are two monosaccharide's which can react to together by condensation reactions and creates a glycosidic bond. 

->Glucose  + Gluclose= Maltose

->Gluclose  + Fructose=Lactose

->Gluclose + galactose=Sucrose

The polysaccharide are long carbohydrate molecules which are formed when many monosaccharide bonds together in condensation reactions.

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