Follicle Development (Female)

Follicle Development (Female)

Each follicle consists of an immature egg called an oocyte
Cells around the oocyte are called:
Follicle cells (one cell layer thick) 
Stimulated to mature by FSH from the pituitary gland 
Granulosa cells 
Thecal cells: Cells in the ovarian stroma
Thecal & granulosa cells work together to produce estrogen
A protective layer of glycoprotein forms around the egg called the zona pellucida

1.Primordial follicle: one layer of squamous-like follicle cells surrounds the oocyte
2.Primary follicle:  two or more layers of cuboidal granulosa cells enclose the oocyte
3.Secondary follicle:  has a fluid-filled space between granulosa cells that coalesces to form a central antrum
4.Graafian follicle: secondary follicle at its most mature stage that bulges from the surface of the ovary
5.Corpus luteum : ruptured follicle after ovulation
6.Corpus albicans: scar tissue

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Chaperones

Chaperones 

Chaperones in cells often help proteins fold correctly which is called Native structure. 
Many proteins do not fold correctly 

Unfolded ->Molten Globule-> [XX] ->Native 

XX= A height barrier which chaperones help. 

The folding of these proteins requires the general class of proteins there is two types. 
1-Chaprones are molecular and act as monomers
2-Chaperonins are large multi-sub unit complexes 

Chaperones interact with partially folded or improperly folded polypeptides. Facilitating correctly folding pathways or providing microenvironments. 

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Gel Filtration Mathematics

Gel Filtration Mathematics  

Kav is easy to get and its more useful in practice (MW determination of unknown protein)

Kav= Ve-Vo/Vt-Vo

For very large molecules eluding at Ve=Vo

For very small molecules eluting at Ve=Vt

Isoelectric Point (pL)- The pH which the overall protein charged exists largely in neutral form and is influenced by a side-chain. 

A Positively charged protein pH<pL

A Negative charged protein pH>pL 

Always after protein purification stage, we need to check the protein purity and also estimate its expression yield. The nature of the amino acids in a proteins structure contribute to its surface charge. 

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Mass Spectroscopy History (brief)

Mass Spectroscopy History (brief) 

MALDI-TOF MS is a very good, fast and accurate technique at indicating a species of microbiological specimens.  MALDI is also a very good process at creating gas phase ions of proteins and peptides which can be identified in a mass spectrometer. 

Mass spectrometry is a type of scientific testing technique conducted in a laboratory. It is commonly used in detecting bacterial isolates where it can use proteins biomarkers to find differences at a species level. MALDI was founded in 1985 by Hillenkamp and Karas in which they had found Alanine which is a type of a amino acid is easily ionised if it was mixed with other types of amino acids such as Tryptophan where it had absorbed the laser energy and had helped ionise the non absorbing Alanine.

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Why MALTI-TOF MS is the next best thing for laboratory science?

Why MALTI-TOF MS is the next best thing for laboratory science? 

Many scientist prefer to use the new process of MALDI-TOF MS over similar diagnostic testing such as MLST, electrophoresis or PCR due to its superiority of being more cost efficient, faster, more accurate and being able to test a wider more range of microorganisms, DNA, sugars, peptides, polymer, lipids and proteins and other biological macromolecules. On the other hand it is quite hard to spot plates so scientists may need to practice this. There is also a downside of MALDI databases being in that there in their infancy, but the benefits definitely outweigh its limitations; such as it can use a single colony requirement for instance a direct from the blood culture. There is also a low exposure to risks due to sample inactivation so it is safer to use in laboratories and for scientists.  

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Epidemiology

Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinate of health relegated sates and or events in a specified populations and the application of this study to the control of health problems.

The study of how disease is distributed in a population and the factors that influence or determine that distribution. such as a triad of host, pathogen and environment.  Epidemiology studies anything that is heath related, infectious disease and chronic disease. 

Epidemiology is used in the population and community health assessment, personal decision making and complete clinical practice as well as evaluating interventions and the search of a cause such as the exposure and relationship to disease during a outbreak investigation.

The information that is needed during a Epidemiology investigation can be a case definition, person, place, time and population not the individual case.

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Ribsomes (complex)

Ribosomes (complex)

Aminoactyl-tRNA Synthase is the enzyme responsible for linking the amino acid to the tRNA. A specific enzyme for each amino acid and not for the tRNA. 
There are 2 adaptors which translate the genetic code to protein. 

Ribosomes are complex machinery that controls protein synthesis and 2 subunits one is large and catalyses the peptide bond formation. 
There is 1 small subunit which is small and binds mRNA and tRNA, this contains proteins and RNA. rRNA is central to the catalytic activity and is folded structure which is highly conserved and the protein has less homology and may not be as important. 

Ribosomes structures may be free in the cytoplasm  or attached to the enoplasmic reticulum. The subunits are in the nucleus in the nucleolus and transported to the cytoplasm. 
The 1 large subunit is used to catalyse the formation of  the peptide bond and the 1 small units matches the tRNA to the mRNA and moves along the mRNA adding amino acids to growing protein chain. 

Ribosomal movement is such that there are 4 binding sites and this the mRNA binding site. The peptidyl-tRNA binding site called the P site, holds tRNA attached to growing end of the peptide. 
Aminoacyl-tRNA binding site A which holders the incoming AA and the E site which is the exit site. 

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Metabolic energy balance in the body

Metabolic energy balance in the body

Metabolic energy balance in the body is used to determine by the function of liver, muscles and adipose tissues. It is mediated by the nervous system and circulating substrates such as plasma hormones levels. The energy metabolism relies heavily on the regulation of primary action of insulin and glucagon. 

Before Insulin: 
In 1960s pro-insulin was extracted from pancreas and a single chain of 84 aa and C-peptide 33 aa was cut to leave 1 insulin gene. 

The C peptide was used as a marker gene for endogenous insulin productions. 

The pre-pro-insulin had an extra 23 aa and at N terminal forming signal sequence. 

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A background on infections

 A background on infections 

A defense keeps us healthy however if pathogens are able to overcome our defenses then that is how a disease results. 

Pathology is the study of disease. 
Etiology is the study of the cause of the disease. 
Parthenogenesis is the development of disease. 
Infection is the colonisation of a body by pathogens. 
Disease is the abnormal state in which the body is not functioning normally. 

Transient microbiota may be present for days, weeks or even months. Normal  microbiota can permanently colonies the host. 

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Disk Diffusion Method

Disk Diffusion Method 

Disk Diffusion is a Kirby-Bauer method and is commonly used for testing in laboratories. 

The zone of inhibition is the area around the antibiotic which it has successful killed bacteria around and stopped the growth of bacteria on the agar gel disk. The larger zone indicate more susceptible and smaller zones means that they are more resistant. 

To use a disk diffusion method is pretty simple the first step is to make sure you are using a well isolated 18-24 hour old specimen. Transfer the specimen to the broth.  Place the appropriate drug such as a antibiotic and invert plate and use a marker to label them and then incubate them at 35'C for about 18-24 hours, the next day you would see the zones of inhibitions and this can be measured. 

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I have started second year of Biomedical science!

Dear fellow Readers and Students! 

I am pleased to tell you all that I have successfully started my second year at Biomedical science! I am excited to kick  start the new academic year with new science topics and interesting scientific enhancements. which makes learning and studying so fun! I do hope all my readers have achieved there best grades and cheers to a new year! :) 

-Mr. Paracetamol 

Why it is important to know why genotypes of gametes?

Why it is important to know why genotypes of gametes?

Phenotype is the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Genotype is the genetic constitution of an individual organism.

Chromosomes contain many genes and humans have 23 different pairs of chromosomes.

Gene mutations are changes to the base sequences in the DNA which alterations vary in severity. Such as Substition where one nucelotide is exchanged for another. Insertion where an extra nucleotide or more than one is placed in the DNA. Deletion is when a nucleotide or more than one is removed from DNA sequence.  

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What are SAPS?

What are SAPS? 

SAPS

Heat resistance arises due to the dehydration of the core due to water absorption of the coretx and the process of a spore formation can take 8 hours in bacillus subtilis. The position of the endospore differs among bacterial species which is useful for its identfication. Spore germination has three stages such as activation which requires specific treament such as heat and the germination which requires nutrients and finally Outgrowth Spore-forming bacteria. Some bacteria such as the Bacillus and Clostridium species are able to formspores. These spores, also referred to as endospores, are the dormant form of vegetative bacteria and are highly resistant to physical and chemical influences.

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Cell Crawling

Cell Crawling

The  process of cell crawling is first the leading edge extends via polymerisation of actin at its tip. then new adhesions are anchored by actin form on the under surface of the lamellipodium. The trailing edge (tail) of the cell detaches and is drawn forward by contraction of the cell body.

Lamellipida is a flattened extension of a cell, by which it moves over or adheres to a surface.

Within the lamellipodia are ribs of actin called microspikes, which, when they spread beyond the lamellipodium frontier, are called filopodia. The lamellipodium is born of actin nucleation in the plasma membrane of the cell and is the primary area of actin incorporation or microfilament formation of the cell.

The Lamellipidia form at the leading edge of the cell and growth of the lamellipodia driven by the growth of the branched actin. Focal adhesion points anchor cell to the surface and is released in the trailing edge of the cell and cytoplasm drawn forward by contraction.

Actin is a type of microfilament. G actin (gobular) monomers assemble into F actin (filamentous) polymers. A polymer has a polarity which means that is has a postive and minus end. F actin is made up og two strands coiled G actin and uses ATP to bind new G actin.

In the perfect world of a test tube, experimenters can do the polymerization process by adding salts to G- actin or can depolymerize F-actin by simply diluting the filaments. Cells, however, must maintain a nearly constant cytosolic ionic concentration and thus employ a different mechanism for controlling actin polymerization. The cellular regulatory mechanism involves several actin-binding proteins that either promote or inhibit actin polymerization. Here we discuss two such proteins that have been isolated and characterized.

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Structure of a microtuble

Structure of a microtuble

A microtubule is a cytoplasmic tubule made up of monomers alpha and beta tubulin hetrodimers which make a protofilament. 13 protofilaments together make a hollow tube is a microtubule it has a outer diameter of 25nm. There are different types of microtuble one type is called cytoplasmic microtubules are very dynamic involved in the moving of intracellular componenets and cell division and usally assemble as a singlet structure, the next type of microtubule are called axonemal-centriolar microbules which are very stable structure which help in the formation of cilla, flagella and centrioles and ca usually assemble as a doublet or triplet. All microtubles bind using GTP and all microtubules have polarity which means one side is positive and one side is negative.

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Bacterial cell walls

Bacterial cell walls

The rigid cell walls of bacteria determine cell shape and prevent the cell from bursting as a result of osmotic pressure. The structure of their cell walls divides bacteria into two broad classes that can be distinguished by a staining procedure known as the Gram stain, developed by Christian Gram in 1884. Gram-negative bacteria (such as E. coli) have a dual membrane system, in which the membrane plasma is surrounded by a permeable outer membrane. These bacteria have thin cell walls located between their inner and outer membranes. In contrast, Gram-positive bacteria (such as the common human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus) have only a single plasma membrane, which is surrounded by a much thicker wall cell.

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Why C.Elegans are important to study in biology?

Why C.Elegans are important to study in biology?

C. elegans is a harmless relative of the eel worm and attack root of crops. C. elegans develops like clockwork very precisely from which it fertilised egg cell to a 959 body cells which is quite rear to see in a animal nevertheless it has enabled scientist to study the detailed sequence of events as the cells becomes more specialised and divide which has allowed to make rules and predications as C. elegans has 70% human genes counterpart in the worm. It has given us a detailed molecular understanding of apoptosis in particular which is programmed cell death by which surplus of cell are disposed in all animals which is a topic of great importance in cancer research.

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Redox in biological systems

Redox in biological systems

A Redox reaction include all chemical reactions in which all atoms have their oxidation state is changed and in which there is a electron transfer between chemical species and a Reduction is the gain of electrons and a decrease in oxidation state by a molecules or atom or ion. 

A mnemonic is OIL RIG and stands for OXIDATION IS LOSS, REDUCTION IS GAIN. 

It is easier to understand Redox by studying oxidation number 

Examples of Redox reactions in biological systems could be: 

-Mitochondria- powerhouse of the cell. 

-Digestion of Food- Oxidation process where food molecules react with oxygen into carbon dioxide and water and energy is also released.

-Oxidation damage to Cells- which is common in all life forms and cycles and has consequences of aging and the gradual breakdown of the immune systems.

-Oxidiative Phosphorylation- Is the synthesis of ATP by phosphorylation of ADP for which energy is obtained by electron transport. 

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Active Transport VS Passive Transport

Active Transport VS Passive Transport

	Active Transport	Passive Transport
Definition	Active Transport uses ATP to pump molecules AGAINST/UP the concentration gradient. Transport occurs from a low concentration of solute to high concentration of solute. Requires cellular energy.	Movement of molecules DOWN the concentration gradient. It goes from high to low concentration, in order to maintain equilibrium in the cells. Does not require cellular energy.
Types of Transport	Endocytosis, cell membrane/sodium-potassium pump & exocytosis	Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.
Functions	Transports molecules through the cell membrane against the concentration gradient so more of the substance is inside the cell (i.e. a nutrient) or outside the cell (i.e. a waste) than normal. Disrupts equilibrium established by diffusion.	Maintains dynamic equilibrium of water, gases, nutrients, wastes, etc. between cells and extracellular fluid; allows for small nutrients and gases to enter/exit. No NET diffusion/osmosis after equilibrium is established.
Types of Particles Transported	proteins, ions, large cells, complex sugars.	Anything soluble (meaning able to dissolve) in lipids, small monosaccharides, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sex hormones, etc.
Examples	phagocytosis, pinocytosis, sodium/potassium pump, secretion of a substance into the bloodstream (process is opposite of phagocytosis & pinocytosis)	diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Importance	amino acids, sugars and lipids need to enter the cell by protein pumps, which require active transport.These items either cannot diffuse or diffuse too slowly for survival.	It maintains equilibrium in the cell. Wastes (carbon dioxide, water, etc.) diffuse out and are excreted; nutrients and oxygen diffuse in to be used by the cell.

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Carbohydates

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate are molecules that are made of only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. 

Monosaccharide's are the simplest sugars units such as glucose. Simple sugars usually have 3-6 carbon chains. Sucrose is classed as a non reducing sugar based on its ability to act as a reducing agent which donates electrons during a Redox reaction and is itself oxidised.  

The adehyde functional group is the reducing agent in reducing sugars and reducing agent is the reducing sugars have either an aldehye functional group or a ketone group in a open chain form which can be converted into a aldehyde group.

The method to test this is called the Benedict's test is to mix the sample with Benedict's solution this is usually Copper (II) Sulphate. If it is a Negative result it will turn blue.  In order to test for a non reducing sugar, you will need to first boil and dilute with HCL and then mix with Benedict's solution and heat, a positive result will be red.

Disaccharides are two monosaccharide's which can react to together by condensation reactions and creates a glycosidic bond. 

->Glucose  + Gluclose= Maltose

->Gluclose  + Fructose=Lactose

->Gluclose + galactose=Sucrose

The polysaccharide are long carbohydrate molecules which are formed when many monosaccharide bonds together in condensation reactions.

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Common chemical formula and name part 2

Common chemical formula and name part 2

Hi readers! Below is a continuous part of the common names and formulas that I have been using in chemistry please use it to help you when you have to find the Mr. 

66 Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
67 Hydroiodic acid HI 
68 Iodic acid HIO3 
69 Iron(II) ammonium sulfate FeSO4+(NH4)2SO4 
70 Iron(II) sulfate FeSO4 
71 Iron(III) chloride FeCl3 
72 Iron(III) nitrate Fe(NO3)3 
73 Iron(III) sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 
74 Isobutanol C4H10O 
75 Lactic acid C3H6O3 7
6 Lactose C12H22O11 7
7 Lead(II) acetate Pb(C2H3O2)2 
78 Lead(II) chloride PbCl2 
79 Lead(II) nitrate Pb(NO3)2 
80 Lead(IV) acetate Pb(C2H3O2)4 
81 Lithium chloride LiCl 
82 Magnesium chloride MgCl2 
83 Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2 
84 Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 
85 Maleic acid C4H4O4 
86 Malonic acid C3H4O4 87 Maltose C12H22O11 
88 Manganese(II) chloride MnCl2 
89 Manganese(II) sulfate MnSO4 
90 Mannitol C6H14O6 
91 Mercury(II) chloride HgCl2 
92 Mercury(II) nitrate Hg(NO3)2 
93 Mercury(II) sulfate HgSO4 
94 Methanol CH3OH 
95 Methyl acetate C3H6O2 
96 Nickel chloride NiCl2 
97 Nickel nitrate Ni(NO3)2 
98 Nickel sulfate NiSO4 
99 Nicotine C10H14N2 
100 Nitric acid HNO3 
101 Oxalic acid H2C2O4 
102 Pentan-1-ol C5H11OH 
103 Perchloric acid HClO4 
104 Phenol C6H6O 
105 Phosphoric acid H3PO4 
106 Potassium bicarbonate KHCO3 
107 Potassium bromate KBrO3 
108 Potassium bromide KBr 
109 Potassium carbonate K2CO3 
110 Potassium chlorate KClO3 
111 Potassium chloride KCl 
112 Potassium chromate K2CrO4 
113 Potassium cyanide KCN 
114 Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7 
115 Potassium dihydrogen phosphate KH2PO4 
116 Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) K4Fe(CN)6 
117 Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) K3Fe(CN)6
118 Potassium hydrogen phosphate K2HPO4 
119 Potassium hydroxide KOH 
120 Potassium iodate KIO3 
121 Potassium iodide KI 
122 Potassium nitrate KNO3 
123 Potassium nitrite KNO2
124 Potassium permanganate KMnO4 
125 Potassium sulfate K2SO4 
126 Potassium sulfite K2SO3 
127 Potassium tartrate K2C4H4O6 
128 Potassium thiocyanate KCNS 
129 Propan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2OH 
130 Propan-2-ol CH3CHOHCH3 
131 Pyridine C5H5N

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Common chemistry formula and names part 1

Below are some common chemical compounds and their respective names as this is useful when doing chemistry maths problems!

1 Acetaldehyde C2H4O 
2 Acetamide C2H5NO 
3 Acetic acid CH3COOH 
4 Acetone C3H6O 
5 Acetonitrile C2H3N 
6 Aluminium chloride AlCl3 
7 Aluminium nitrate Al(NO3)3 
8 Aluminium sulfate Al2(SO4)3 
9 Ammonia NH3 
10 Ammonium acetate CH3COONH4 
11 Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 
12 Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 
13 Ammonium dichromate (NH4)2Cr2O7 
14 Ammonium hydroxide NH4O 
15 Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 
16 Ammonium oxalate (NH4)2C2 
17 Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 
18 Antimony(III) chloride SbCl3 
19 Antimony(V) chloride SbCl5 
20 Barium chloride BaCl2 
21 Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 
22 Barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2 
23 Bismuth(III) chloride BiCl3 
24 Bismuth(III) nitrate Bi(NO3)3 
25 Butan-1-ol C4H10O 
26 Butyric acid C4H8O2 
27 Cadmium nitrate Cd(NO3)2 
28 Cadmium sulfate CdSO4 
29 Calcium chloride CaCl2 
30 Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 
31 Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 
32 Calcium sulfate CaSO4 
33 Carbon disulfide CS2 
34 Chloroacetic acid C2H3ClO2 
35 Chloroauric acid HAuCl4 
36 Chloroform CHCl3 
37 Chloroplatinic acid H2PtCl6 
38 Chromium(III) chloride CrCl3 3
9 Chromium(III) nitrate Cr(NO3) 
40 Chromium(III) sulfate Cr2(SO4)3 
41 Chromium(VI) oxide CrO3 
42 Citric acid C6H8O7 
43 Cobalt(II) nitrate Co(NO3)2 
44 Cobalt(II) sulfate CoSO4 
45 Copper(I) chloride Cu2Cl2 
46 Copper(II) chloride CuCl2 
47 Copper(II) nitrate Cu(NO3)2 
48 Copper(II) sulfate CuSO4 
49 Dichloroacetic acid C2H2Cl2O2 
50 Diethyl ether (C2H5)2O 
51 Dimethylglyoxime (CH3CNOH)2 
52 EDTA, disodium salt Na2C10H14N2O8 
53 Ethanol C2H5OH 
54 Ethylene glycol (CH2OH)2 
55 Formaldehyde CH2O 
56 Formic acid CH2O2 
57 Fructose C6H12O6 
58 Glucose C6H12O6 
59 Glycerol C3H8O3 
60 Hexafluorosilicic acid H2SiF6 
61 Hydrazine N2H4 
62 Hydrobromic acid HBr 
63 Hydrochloric acid HCl 
64 Hydrocyanic acid HCN 
65 Hydrofluoric acid HF

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How Red Blood Cells got their shape?

How Red Blood Cells got their shape? 

Red blood cells have a cytoskeleton structure which keeps them having having its distinct helical shape. This is because of actin binding proteins such as Band 3 TM and Ankyrin and then spectrin which creates a hexagonal mesh like structure over the red blood cell which keeps it having its bioconcave shape which is useful when it travels in the blood vessels. 

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The common bacterial cells proteins

The common bacterial cells proteins

The following proteins and fibers are also in a bacteria cells. 

-Ftsz = Tubulin 
-MreB = Actin
-Crescentin = Intermediate Fiber 

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How to find LOG on a scientific calculator

  

How to find LOG on a scientific calculator 

In my previous post I taught you how to use PH log and i think that it is quite important to know where it is on the calculator and how to find the button as someone like me whose first time using it was very confusing! But alas I got there:)

The opposite of log( is -10^-x  X is the number that will always have a minus next to it, so don't forget to put the minus sign on it! it will also most likely have a decimal point in it too!

1.     pH=-log[H+]

2.     pOH=-log [OH-]3.     pH + pOH=144.     [H+]=2nd log (-pH)5.     [OH-]= 2nd log (-pOH)6.     [H+] x [OH-]=1X10-14

Log is a function on the calculator and stands for logarithm!

log on the scientific calculator looks like this:

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Acid-Bases and PH

Acid-Bases and PH

When a base is dissolved in water  it is called alkali.

A salt is made when a acid reacts with a base.

PH decreases when H+ ions increases.

We can measure how many H+ in a solution so its pH. PH is defined as the negative logarithm in base 10 in the H+ ion concentration express in moles per litre M.

PH=-log[H+]

As the PH goes down the number of H+ increases and the solution is more acidic. a change in one PH unit equates to a tenfold increase in H+.

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Naming Hydrocarbons

Naming Hydrocarbons 

Hydrocarbons are compounds containing carbon and hydrogen only and Homocylic compounds with alternative double bonds are called aromatic compounds.

Homocylic compounds without double bonds are cycloalkanes or alicylic or polymethene compounds.

A functional group is a atom or group of atoms in a molecule which gives rise to characteristic chemical behavior.

The most common alkane names:

1-Methane

2-Ethane

3-Propane

4-Butane

5-Pentane

6-Hexane

7-Heptane

8-Octane

9-Nonane

The steps to naming branched hydrocarbons.

1-Identify the root: Longest possible hydrocarbons

2-Number the carbon atoms in the root, starting at the end that is closest to an attached substituent

3-Name the root and its prefix add substituent's position and name.

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Amino Acid Structure

Amino Acid Structure

All proteins are made up of amino acids chains called a polypeptide. Amino acids contain a central carbon atom and a amine group and a carboxyl group and a hydrogen atom. The difference in  R group is what makes one amino acid different from another. There are 20 common amino acids present in the body.

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